“To be, or not to be” – Shakespeare
“Erchen” (literally “two-subject officials”) refers to those who served as officials in the previous dynasty and then surrendered to and served in the subsequent dynasty. Because this violates the “way of loyalty and righteousness” in Chinese culture, the term carries a strong moral judgment.
Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty, after the Qing forces had crossed the Great Wall, they gradually advanced southwards. Unwilling to accept rule by a foreign ethnic group (the Manchus ultimately assimilated and carried forward Chinese civilisation, becoming an integral part of the Chinese nation), the people rose up in resistance against the Qing. However, the Qing forces eventually crushed the Southern Ming, as well as local anti-Qing and peasant rebel forces across the country, establishing their rule over the whole of China. Among the Ming officials, some chose to die for Ming, while others surrendered to the Qing and were appointed to office.
By the mid-Qing Dynasty, after Qing had firmly established its rule, the Qianlong Emperor ordered the compilation of the “Imperially Commissioned Biographies of Erchen Officials of the National History” , designating those officials who had served both dynasties during the Ming-Qing transition as “Er Chen” who had “failed in the great principle of loyalty.” The Qianlong Emperor also ordered the compilation of the “Imperially Commissioned Record of Martyred Officials of the Previous Dynasty” which honored those who had died for the Ming cause, including officials, gentry, and commoners who resisted the Qing and perished. Although the Qianlong Emperor’s actions were arguably motivated by a desire to reinforce Confucian principles of hierarchical loyalty and consolidate Qing’s rule, they also reflect widely recognised moral standards.
The following are examples of officials who, after surrendering to the Qing, rendered outstanding service in conquering and governing the realm, yet were still listed as “Er Chen” because they failed to remain loyal to the Ming:
- Hong Chengchou: A high-ranking Ming minister, he surrendered to the Qing and later served as a Grand Secretary. He formulated strategies for the Qing army’s entry through the Shanhai Pass and the unification of the Central Plains, making immense contributions to the establishment of Qing rule.
- Fan Wencheng: He submitted to the Qing early on and was hailed as the “foremost strategist” of the early Qing. He served three emperors and was highly valued by all.
- Zu Dashou: A Ming commander-in-chief in Liaodong, he surrendered to the Qing after repeated battles with the Qing army. His family made significant military contributions to the early Qing.
- Liu Liangzuo, Li Chengdong, and Kong Youde: Ming generals who surrendered and became key forces in the Qing army’s southern campaigns to suppress various anti-Qing forces.
The following are cases of Ming ministers who died for the Ming and were posthumously honored by the Qing:
- Huang Daozhou: A late-Ming Grand Secretary and renowned scholar. After his military defeat, he was captured and executed in Nanjing. He met his end with composure. He was posthumously given the title “Zhongduan” (Loyal and Upright).
- Liu Zongzhou: A late-Ming master of Confucianism and Neo-Confucian scholar. After the Qing troops entered the capital, he starved himself to death. He was posthumously given the title “Zhongjie” (Loyal and Incorruptible).
- Shi Kefa: Minister of War of the Southern Ming. He was captured while resisting the Qing, he refused to surrender and was executed.. He was posthumously given the title “Zhongzheng” (Loyal and Righteous).
#46 贰臣
“贰臣”指在前一个朝代做官，投降后一个朝代又做官的人，因违背中国文化的“忠义之道”，带有强烈道德评判色彩。
明朝末年，清军入关后逐步挥师南下，人们不愿接受异族统治 （满族人最终吸收和承接中华文明，成为了中华各民族的重要一员）而纷纷起来抗清，但清军最终消灭了南明及各地抗清与农民军势力，建立了对全中国的统治。明朝的大臣们，有些选择为明朝殉节，有些则降清并得到任用。
到了清朝中期，统治稳固之后，乾隆帝下令编纂《钦定国史贰臣表传》，将明末清初效力两朝的官员定为“大节有亏“的“贰臣“。乾隆帝也下令编纂了《钦定胜朝殉节诸臣录》，表彰明代殉节人物，其中收录了南明抗清和为明室死节的官员、士绅和平民。虽然乾隆此举有强化儒家纲常伦理、巩固统治秩序之嫌，却也反映出公认的道德准则。
以下例举的这批官员降清后为清朝打天下或治理国家立下了汗马功劳，但因未能忠于明朝，仍被列入贰臣：
- 洪承畴：明末重臣，降清后担任清朝大学士，为清军入关和统一中原制定了战略，对清朝建立统治贡献极大。
- 范文程：早年归附清朝，被誉为清初“谋臣之首”，历仕努尔哈赤、皇太极、顺治三朝，深受器重。
- 祖大寿：明朝辽东总兵，屡次与清军交战后投降清朝，其家族对清初军事贡献极高。
- 刘良佐、李成栋、孔有德：明朝降将，在清军南下平定各地反清势力时充当了重要主力。
以下是殉国的明朝大臣清代赐谥案例：
- 黄道周：明末大学士、著名学者，兵败被俘后在南京从容就义，被清朝追谥为“忠端” （忠贞不二，品行端方）。
- 刘宗周： 明末儒学大师、理学家，清兵入关后绝食殉国，被清朝追谥为“忠介”（忠诚守节，清廉耿介）。
- 史可法： 南明兵部尚书，抗清被俘，不屈就义，被清朝追谥为“忠正 （忠心耿耿，正直无邪）。